ACTA AERONAUTICAET ASTRONAUTICA SINICA >
Development and prospects of on-borne liquid hydrogen fuel storage and supply system
Received date: 2024-12-18
Revised date: 2025-01-15
Accepted date: 2025-02-25
Online published: 2025-02-28
Supported by
National Key Research and Development Program(2022YFB4002801)
Hydrogen-powered aircraft， with the advantages of high mass-energy density and near-zero emissions， has become an important direction in the green transformation of the aviation industry. As one of the core systems of hydrogen-powered aircraft， the breakthrough of key core technologies in the liquid hydrogen fuel storage and supply system directly affects the economy and practicality of the aircraft. This paper systematically reviews the development status of hydrogen-powered aircraft， with a focus on discussing the design and integration challenges of key components in the on-board liquid hydrogen fuel storage and supply systems， including liquid hydrogen storage tanks， liquid hydrogen booster pumps， and heat exchangers. Furthermore， and s six key core technologies for the development of on-board liquid hydrogen fuel storage and supply systems are condensed： layout optimization technology， system lightweight technology， high-quality hydrogen storage ratio and efficient storage technology for liquid hydrogen storage tanks， hydrogen supply dynamic matching control technology， liquid hydrogen cold energy comprehensive regulation technology， and safety and risk control technology. The analysis results show that the layout optimization of the on-board liquid hydrogen fuel storage and supply system is fundamental， and applicable layouts are given according to different aircraft types； the lightweight of the liquid hydrogen fuel storage and supply system helps to improve the range and payload of the aircraft， especially the high gravimetric hydrogen storage density and efficient storage of liquid hydrogen storage tanks are particularly important. Dynamic hydrogen supply control and liquid hydrogen cold energy comprehensive regulation technologies are applicable to the dynamic working stages of the aircraft. By combining international standards and adopting multiple safety designs to reduce the risks of leakage and fire， the operation safety of hydrogen-powered aircraft is ensured. The development of key components， the breakthrough of key core technologies， and the establishment of relevant standards for the above-mentioned on-board liquid hydrogen fuel storage and supply systems will not only effectively promote the commercialization process of hydrogen-powered aircraft， but also provide important support for the low-altitude economy and the carbon-neutrality goal of the aviation industry.
Bin ZHU , Shaoqi YANG , Liang GUO , Qiming JIA , Ye CHEN , Xiujuan XIE . Development and prospects of on-borne liquid hydrogen fuel storage and supply system[J]. ACTA AERONAUTICAET ASTRONAUTICA SINICA, 2025 , 46(16) : 231682 -231682 . DOI: 10.7527/S1000-6893.2025.31682
| [1] | RITCHIE H， ROSER M. What share of global CO?? emissions come from aviation［EB/OL］. （2024-04-08）［2024-10-22］. . |
| [2] | KL?WER M， ALLEN M R， LEE D S， et al. Quantifying aviation’s contribution to global warming［J］. Environmental Research Letters， 2021， 16（10）： 104027. |
| [3] | THOMSON R， WEICHENHAIN U. Hydrogen： A future fuel for aviation［EB/OL］. （2020-03-11） ［2024-10-14］. . |
| [4] | ONORATO G， PROESMANS P， HOOGREEF M F M. Assessment of hydrogen transport aircraft［J］. CEAS Aeronautical Journal， 2022， 13（4）： 813-845. |
| [5] | ZeroAvia. Enabling a clean flight future with hydrogen aviation［EB/OL］. （2023-11）［2024-09-05］. . |
| [6] | University of Cambridge. Target true zero unlocking sustainable battery and hydrogen-powered flight［R］. Cambridge： University of Cambridge， 2022. |
| [7] | 张晓兰. 低空经济发展前景可期［EB/OL］. （2024-11-29）［2025-02-10］. . |
| ZHANG X L. The development prospects of low-altitude economy are promising［EB/OL］. （2024-11-29）［2025-02-10］. （in Chinese）. | |
| [8] | 向巧， 胡晓煜， 王曼， 等. 关于氢能航空动力发展的认识与思考［J］. 航空发动机， 2024， 50（1）： 1-9. |
| XIANG Q， HU X Y， WANG M， et al. Observations on the development of hydrogen-powered aircraft propulsion system［J］. Aeroengine， 2024， 50（1）： 1-9 （in Chinese）. | |
| [9] | 王翔宇. 英国零碳飞行发展愿景分析［J］. 航空动力， 2022（3）： 24-27. |
| WANG X Y. Analysis to the development vision of FlyZero［J］. Aerospace Power， 2022（3）： 24-27 （in Chinese）. | |
| [10] | BUTTERS D. How to store liquid hydrogen for zero-emission flight?［EB/OL］. （2021-12-09）［2024-11-15］. . |
| [11] | EMMETT M. Scaling hydrogen-electric propulsion for large aircraft［EB/OL］. （2024-08-06）［2024-09-05］. . |
| [12] | WEBBER H. Primary energy source comparison and selection： FZ_0_6.1［R］. London： Aerospace Technology Institute， 2021. |
| [13] | BREWER G D. Hydrogen aircraft technology［M］. Boca Raton： CRC Press， 1991： 1-245. |
| [14] | PERRY R， SLOOP J L. Liquid hydrogen as a propulsion fuel， 1945-1959［J］. Technology and Culture， 1980， 21（1）： 136. |
| [15] | KHANDELWAL B， KARAKURT A， SEKARAN P R， et al. Hydrogen powered aircraft： The future of air transport［J］. Progress in Aerospace Sciences， 2013， 60： 45-59. |
| [16] | SOSOUNOV V， ORLOV V. Experimental turbofan using liquid hydrogen and liquid natural gas as fuel［C］∥26th Joint Propulsion Conference. Reston： AIAA， 1990. |
| [17] | WADDINGTON E. CHEETA aircraft sizing， performance， and sensitivity［D］. Illinois： University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign， 2022： 25-26. |
| [18] | VOLAND R T， HUEBNER L D， MCCLINTON C R. X-43A Hypersonic vehicle technology development［J］. Acta Astronautica， 2006， 59（1-5）： 181-191. |
| [19] | TRIMBLE S. AeroVironment investigates cause of global observer crash?［EB/OL］. （2011-04-02）?［2024-11-24］. . |
| [20] | JACKSON R， VANNIEROP D. Boeing Phantom Eye completes 1st autonomous flight［EB/OL］. （2012-06-04）［2024-10-23］. . |
| [21] | HADDOX C， VANNIEROP D. Boeing Unveils Unmanned Phantom Eye demonstrator［EB/OL］. （2010-07-12）［2024-10-23］. . |
| [22] | 韩玉琪. 航空氢动力研发进展［J］. 大飞机， 2024（8）： 15-19. |
| HAN Y Q. Research and development progress of aviation hydrogen power［J］. Jetliner， 2024（8）： 15-19 （in Chinese）. | |
| [23] | BARRY K. Antares is first to take off with hydrogen［EB/OL］. （2009-07-09）［2025-01-29］. . |
| [24] | GAVRILOVIC N， MERTIKA S， MOSCHETTA J M， et al. Experimental study on a liquid hydrogen tank for unmanned aerial vehicle applications［J］. Journal of Aircraft， 2024， 61（6）： 1805-1816. |
| [25] | STROMAN R O， SCHUETTE M W， SWIDER-LYONS K， et al. Liquid hydrogen fuel system design and demonstration in a small long endurance air vehicle［J］. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy， 2014， 39（21）： 11279-11290. |
| [26] | Boeing. Boeing successfully flies fuel cell-powered airplane［EB/OL］. （2008-04-03）［2025-01-23］.∥. |
| [27] | ADMIN. ENFICA-FC’s rapid 200-FC electric aircraft sets speed and endurance records—Ecofriend［EB/OL］. （2010-07-10）［2025-01-22］. . |
| [28] | ZeroAvia. ZeroAvia makes aviation history， flying world’s largest aircraft powered with a hydrogen-electric engine［EB/OL］. （2023-01-19）［2025-01-22］ .. |
| [29] | BARABANOVA K. ZeroAvia completes world first hydrogen-electric passenger plane flight［EB/OL］. ZeroAvia. （2020-09-25）［2025-01-22］. . |
| [30] | BARABANOVA K. ZeroAvia flight testing hydrogen-electric powerplant［EB/OL］. （2023-01-19）［2024-10-23］ .. |
| [31] | SCIENCE H W. Universal hydrogen flies hydrogen-powered dash 8［EB/OL］. （2023-03-01）［2024-12-09］ .. |
| [32] | VOTH V， LüBBE S M， SCH?FER M， et al. Functional approach to a fuel cell thermal management system in safety-critical applications［C］∥AIAA Aviation 2023 Forum. Reston： AIAA， 2023. |
| [33] | SASSENAGE. H2FLY passes first filling tests with integrated liquid hydrogen tank［EB/OL］. （2023-04-05）［2024-09-05］ .. |
| [34] | ALCOCK C. H2 Fly’s breakthrough flight demonstration bolsters the case for liquid hydrogen propulsion［EB/OL］. （2023-09-13）［2024-09-05］.. |
| [35] | JOBY AVIATION. Joby completes landmark 523-mile hydrogen-electric flight | Joby［EB/OL］. （2024-07-11）［2024-10-16］.. |
| [36] | HORNE T A. Joby S4： Coming to your airport in 2025 ［EB/OL］.（2023-03-03）［2024-10-23］.. |
| [37] | 青柠. 国内首个吨级液氢eVTOL试飞成功［EB/OL］. （2025-01-14）［2025-02-06］. . |
| QING N. China’s first tonnage liquid hydrogen eVTOL flight test succeeded［EB/OL］. （2025-01-14）［2025-02-06］. （in Chinese）. | |
| [38] | AMSL Aero. AMSL Aero makes aviation history by completing landmark free flight of zero-emissions “Vertiia” aircraft?［EB/OL］. （2024-11-18）［2025-01-27］. . |
| [39] | WEBER H. group.apus-aero.com | Offizielles Roll-Out der APUS i-2［EB/OL］. （2024-09-06）［2024-10-22］.. |
| [40] | FAIRCLOUGH C. Powering the future of flight： Designing a hydrogen-powered eVTOL［EB/OL］.（2024-07-22）［2024-10-23］. . |
| [41] | GAUTHIER B. Singapore’s HES unveils plans for regional hydrogen-electric passenger aircraft［EB/OL］.（2018-10-02）［2024-10-23］. . |
| [42] | SAMPSON B. Piasecki reveals progress on hydrogen eVTOL aircraft R & D［EB/OL］. （2024-05-15）［2025-01-27］.. |
| [43] | WESTENBERGER A. Hydrogen fueled aircraft［C］∥AIAA International Air and Space Symposium and Exposition： The Next 100 Years. Dayton， Reston： AIAA， 2003. |
| [44] | 张新榃， 于航， 彭俊毅， 等. 氢能源民用飞机技术路线与总体概念设计方法研究［J］. 推进技术， 2024， 45（3）： 58-64. |
| ZHANG X T， YU H， PENG J Y， et al. Technical route research and concept design of hydrogen aircraft［J］. Journal of Propulsion Technology， 2024， 45（3）： 58-64 （in Chinese）. | |
| [45] | MILLIS M G， TORNABENE R T， JURNS J M， et al. Hydrogen fuel system design trades for high-altitude long-endurance remotely-operated aircraft： NASA/TM-2009-215521［R］. Washington， D.C.： NASA， 2009. |
| [46] | 高彦峰， 宋琦， 谢高峰， 等. 临近空间无人机液氢供能系统技术分析［J］. 航空工程进展， 2024， 15（2）： 11-24. |
| GAO Y F， SONG Q， XIE G F， et al. Analysis of liquid hydrogen power systems for near space unmanned aerial vehicles［J］. Advances in Aeronautical Science and Engineering， 2024， 15（2）： 11-24 （in Chinese）. | |
| [47] | WINNEFELD C， KADYK T， BENSMANN B， et al. Modelling and designing cryogenic hydrogen tanks for future aircraft applications［J］. Energies， 2018， 11（1）： 105. |
| [48] | GOLLNOW M. Passenger aircraft towards zero emission with hydrogen and fuel cells［R］. Hamburg State： Hamburg University of Applied Science， 2022： 23-43. |
| [49] | TIWARI S， PEKRIS M J， DOHERTY J J. A review of liquid hydrogen aircraft and propulsion technologies［J］. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy， 2024， 57： 1174-1196. |
| [50] | 张永杰， 王鸿琛， 崔博， 等. 氢能客机低温液氢储罐装机环境适应性研究进展［J］. 航空学报， 2025， 46（9）： 629870. |
| ZHANG Y J， WANG H C， CUI B， et al. Research progress in installation environment adaptability of cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanks for hydrogen-powered aircraft［J］. Acta Aeronautica et Astronautica Sinica， 2025， 46（9）： 629870 （in Chinese）. | |
| [51] | GLOYER P. Ultra-lightweight LH2 storage for LH2 powered aircraft and other vehicles［EB/OL］. （2024-03）.. |
| [52] | 赵高逸. 飞行器用液氢贮罐内低温推进剂晃动特性研究［D］. 兰州： 兰州理工大学， 2021： 1-2. |
| ZHAO G Y. Research on sloshing properties of cryogenic propellant in liquid hydrogen tank for aircraft［D］. Lanzhou： Lanzhou University of Technology， 2021： 1-2 （in Chinese）. | |
| [53] | RYALI L， STAUTNER W， MARIAPPAN D. Impact of internal baffle designs on liquid hydrogen sloshing in cryogenic aircraft fuel tanks［J］. IOP Conference Series： Materials Science and Engineering， 2024， 1301（1）： 012068. |
| [54] | MILLS G L， BUCHHOLTZ B， OLSEN A. Design， fabrication and testing of a liquid hydrogen fuel tank for a long duration aircraft［C］∥AIP Conference Proceedings. Washington， D.C.： American Institute of Physics， 2012： 773-780. |
| [55] | AZIMI A. Liquid hydrogen fuel distribution system performance for short medium range civil aircraft［D］. Gothenburg： Chalmers University of Technology， 2022： 7-27. |
| [56] | 韦炜， 何志龙， 邢子文， 等. 高压液氢泵研究进展［J］. 流体机械， 2022， 50（7）： 79-84， 104. |
| WEI W， HE Z L， XING Z W， et al. Overview of advances in the research of high-pressure liquid hydrogen pump［J］. Fluid Machinery， 2022， 50（7）： 79-84， 104 （in Chinese）. | |
| [57] | LINDE PLC. Think hydrogen. Think linde［EB/OL］. （2022-10-11）［2024-10-25］. . |
| [58] | STAUTNER E W， HARAN K S， ANSELL P J， et al. Liquid hydrogen pump overview/tank safety［M］∥Aircraft Cryogenics. Cham： Springer Nature Switzerland， 2024： 151-171. |
| [59] | Rolls-Royce. Rolls-Royce starts new set of ground-breaking hydrogen research tests［EB/OL］. （2023-12-20）［2024-10-25］.. |
| [60] | MCKINSEY & COMPANY. Hydrogen-powered aviation： A fact based study of hydrogen technology， economics， and climate impact by 2050［R］. Brussels： Publications Office of the European Union， 2020. |
| [61] | TARBAH N. Developing a framework for the design of hydrogen fuel cell supply architectures［D］. Delft： Delft University of Technology， 2024： 29-31. |
| [62] | JEUNESSE L. Cryogenic tests of an airborne liquid hydrogen tank for a manned aircraft in the HEAVEN project［C］∥ICEC 29. Geneva： Air Liquide Advanced Technologies / Innovation Department， 2023： 3-12. |
| [63] | MITAL S K， GYEKENYESI J Z， ARNOLD S M， et al. Review of current state of the art and key design issues with potential solutions for liquid hydrogen cryogenic storage tank structures for aircraft applications： NASA/TM—2006-214346?［R］. Cleveland： NASA Glenn Research Center， 2006. |
| [64] | DERKING H， GUPTA K， KEEZER M， et al. Developments in liquid hydrogen on-board systems and ground-based infrastructures for sustainable aviation［C］∥ICEC 29-ICMC 2024. Geneva： Cryoworld BV， 2024： 389. |
| [65] | HEALY F， GU H， REZGUI D， et al. Conceptual design of hydrogen-powered aircraft： High aspect ratio wings and floating wingtips［C］∥Congress of the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences； Florence， Italy. 2024： 386. |
| [66] | DRUOT T Y， PETEILH N， ROCHES P， et al. Hydrogen powered airplanes， an exploration of possible architectures leveraging boundary layer ingestion and hybridization［C］∥AIAA Scitech 2022 Forum. Reston： AIAA， 2022. |
| [67] | SCHOLZ D. Design of hydrogen passenger aircraft-how much “zero-emission” is possible［C］∥Hamburg Aerospace Lecture Series 2020. 2020： 11-19. |
| [68] | ADLER E J， MARTINS J R R A. Hydrogen-powered aircraft： Fundamental concepts， key technologies， and environmental impacts［J］. Progress in Aerospace Sciences， 2023， 141： 100922. |
| [69] | VERSTRAETE D. On the energy efficiency of hydrogen-fuelled transport aircraft［J］. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy， 2015， 40（23）： 7388-7394 |
| [70] | YUSAF T， FERNANDES L， TALIB A R ABU， et al. Sustainable aviation： Hydrogen is the future［J］. Sustainability， 2022， 14（1）： 548. |
| [71] | PALAIA G， SALEM K ABU， CARRERA E. Preliminary performance analysis of medium-range liquid hydrogen-powered box-wing aircraft?［J］. Aerospace， 2024， 11（5）： 379. |
| [72] | TROELTSCH F M， ENGELMANN M， SCHOLZ A E， et al. Hydrogen powered long haul aircraft with minimized climate impact［C］∥ AIAA Aviation 2020 Forum. AIAA， 2020. |
| [73] | YUSAF T， FAISAL MAHAMUDE A S， KADIRGAMA K， et al. Sustainable hydrogen energy in aviation-A narrative review［J］. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy， 2024， 52： 1026-1045. |
| [74] | CIPOLLA V， ZANETTI D， SALEM K ABU， et al. A parametric approach for conceptual integration and performance studies of liquid hydrogen short-medium range aircraft［J］. Applied Sciences， 2022， 12（14）： 6857. |
| [75] | VERSTRAETE D， HENDRICK P， PILIDIS P， et al. Hydrogen fuel tanks for subsonic transport aircraft［J］. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy， 2010， 35（20）： 11085-11098. |
| [76] | SEECKT K. Conceptual design and investigation of hydrogen-fueled regional freighter aircraft［D］. Stockholm： KTH Royal Institute of Technology， 2010： 29-30. |
| [77] | OAK M， FABRE A， DELAVENNE M， et al. Spectral project-application of FAST-OAD code to the conceptual design of a hydrogen fuelled commercial aircraft［J］. IOP Conference Series： Materials Science and Engineering， 2022， 1226（1）： 012027. |
| [78] | SILBERHORN D， ATANASOV G， J-N WALTHER， et al. Assessment of hydrogen fuel tank internation at aircraft level ［C］∥Deutsche Luft-und Raumfahrtkongress. 2019. |
| [79] | MUKHOPADHAYA J， RUTHERFORD D. Performance analysis of evolutionary hydrogen-powered aircraft［R］. Washington， D.C.： International Council on Clean Transportation， 2022. |
| [80] | 高扬， 张志强， 王赵蕊佳， 等. 氢能源动力试飞关键技术分析与发展展望［J］. 航空工程进展， 2024， 15（6）： 77-85. |
| GAO Y， ZHANG Z Q， WANG Z， et al. Analysis and development prospect of key technologies for hydrogen power flight test［J］. Advances in Aeronautical Science and Engineering， 2024， 15（6）： 77-85 （in Chinese）. | |
| [81] | PALIES P. Scientific and technological advances in hydrogen combustion aircraft?［EB/OL］. ［2025-02-10］. . |
| [82] | 易车. 轻量化与技术突破，氢动力飞行器关键路径探索［EB/OL］. （2025-01-26）［2025-02-10］.. |
| YI C. Lightweight and technological break throughs： Exploring key paths for hydrogen-powered aircraft［EB/OL］.（2025-01-26）［2025-02-10］. （in Chinese）. | |
| [83] | VERSTRAETE D. The potential of liquid hydrogen for long range aircraft propulsion［D］. Cranfield： Cranfield University， 2009. |
| [84] | 陈红， 杨鑫磊， 王晓月. 航空机载液氢储罐绝热性能及轻量化研究［J］. 航空科学技术， 2024， 35（1）： 36-46. |
| CHEN H， YANG X L， WANG X Y. Study on adiabatic performance and lightweight of airborne liquid hydrogen storage tank?［J］. Aeronautical Science & Technology， 2024， 35（1）： 36-46 （in Chinese）. | |
| [85] | MARQUARDT J， KELLER J， MILLS G， et al. An overview of Ball Aerospace cryogen storage and delivery systems?［J］. IOP Conference Series： Materials Science and Engineering， 2015， 101（1）： 012086. |
| [86] | SONG W W， YANG F T， XIANG S， et al. Development progress and industrialization prospect of hydrogen-powered aircraft［J］. Strategic Study of CAE， 2023， 25（5）： 192. |
| [87] | XISTO C， LUNDBLADH A. Design and performance of liquid hydrogen fueled aircraft for year 2050 EIS［C］∥33rd Congress of the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences. 2022. |
| [88] | CORCHERO G， MONTA?éS J L. An approach to the use of hydrogen for commercial aircraft engines［J］. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers， Part G： Journal of Aerospace Engineering， 2005， 219（1）： 35-44. |
| [89] | Y?LMAZ ?， ?LBA? M， TA?TAN M， et al. Investigation of hydrogen usage in aviation industry［J］. Energy Conversion and Management， 2012， 63： 63-69. |
| [90] | FERRETTO D， FUSARO R， VIOLA N. Propellant subsystem design for hypersonic cruiser exploiting liquid hydrogen［C］∥AIAA Aviation 2022 Forum. Reston： AIAA， 2022. |
| [91] | VIOLA N， FERRETTO D， FUSARO R， et al. Performance assessment of an integrated environmental control system of civil hypersonic vehicles［J］. Aerospace， 2022， 9（4）： 201. |
| [92] | DE PAULA ANDRADE S T， FERNANDES M D， BISTRITZKI V N， et al. Fuel cells as APU in aircrafts［M］∥ Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technologies in Aviation. Berlin： Springer Cham， 2022： 147-169. |
| [93] | SAE. Considerations for hydrogen fuel cells in airborne applications： SAE AIR 7765-2019 ［S］. Warrendale： Society of Automotive Engineers， 2019. |
| [94] | SAE. EUROCAE/SAE WG80/AE-7AFC hydrogen fuel cells aircraft fuel cell safety guidelines： SAE AIR 6464-2013 （SAE AIR6464-2013） ［S］. Warrendale： Society of Automotive Engineers， 2020. |
| [95] | ISO. Cryogenic vessels-Transportable vacuum insulated vessels of not more than 1 000 litres volume-Part 1： Design， fabrication， inspection and tests： ［S］. Geneva： International Organization for Standardization， 2018. |
| [96] | ISO. Cryogenic vessels-Cryogenic insulation performance： ［S］. Geneva：International Organization for Standardization， 2019. |
| [97] | AIAA. Guide to safety of hydrogen and hydrogen systems： ［S］. Reston： AIAA， 2017. |
| [98] | ISO. Basic considerations for the safety of hydrogen systems： ［S］. Geneva： International Organization for Standardization， 2015. |
/
| 〈 |
|
〉 |
CJA